Monday, June 25, 2007
Introduction
Problem solving is a skill that many students and professionals use daily. Problem solving skills are used to find multiple solutions to a wide variety of problems: the shortest route to a vacation destination, the location of lost car keys, or even as simple as the best gift to buy. Students use problem solving strategies to resolve conflicts, find solutions to math problems, understand reading material, and complete science experiments. Educators need to supply their students with well modeled, practiced, and efficient problem solving strategies to develop schemas for use in the classroom and in their outside environments.
Conflict Resolution
A number of conflicts can develop within a student’s personal life including problems in the classroom, at lunch, on the playground, or at home. Children deal with these problems based on schema and scripts they have developed in their long term memory. The long term memory holds all the experiences that children have had in previous years. Children are exposed, now more than ever, to violence on television, movies, and video games. Many times the problems they witness in the media are solved with aggressive tactics. If children are exposed to this type of violence then they develop these types of schema and scripts to solve problems their own problems. Violence has been a concern on the minds of many school districts around the country. Students need to be taught that violence is not the only way to solve a problem. If children are exposed to violence in the home at an early age, they tend to use violence to solve conflicts.
Teachers play a major role in demonstrating, practicing, and modeling proper ways to resolve conflicts. Many students look to them for advice on how to handle many situations they face. A teacher especially influences early elementary students’ problem solving (Malloy & McMurray, 1996). Generally, classroom teachers praise their students when resolutions are found (Shapiro & Watson, 2000). Students that are mutual friends are more likely to reach a conflict resolution on their own using problem solving strategies (as cited in Malloy & McMurray, 1996).
Not all students can use problem solving strategies easily. Students with disabilities, especially those that struggle communicating verbally, tend to go to a teacher for assistance when faced with a conflict (as cited in Malloy & McMurray, 1996). Children with low information processing skills use aggressive tactics to resolve conflicts and children with high information processing skills are less likely to use aggression (Nash, Fraser, Galinsky, & Kupper, 2003). These students may use aggression unconsciously, not knowing how inappropriate their tactics may be. The central executive, part of the working memory, is responsible for making decisions and solving problems. It pulls information from the visualspatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and the episodic buffer (Matlin, 2005). If students have visual processing or auditory processing difficulties they may have difficulties storing information leading to difficulties resolving conflicts and they may resort to aggression. Students that come from homes of a low poverty level generally are delayed in intellectual development, which leads to behavior and emotional problems (as cited in Rimm-Kauhman & Chiu, 2007). Results of a study conducted by Malloy & McMurray (1996) found that most student conflicts in an early elementary classroom setting occurred between a student with a disability and a student without a disability and most were resolved with the teacher’s help. Research has discovered that aggression is more commonly used by early elementary students to resolve problems (Nash et al., 2003). By late elementary, those children who use aggression to solve conflicts are not easily accepted by other children (as cited in Nash et al., 2003).
School districts look to programs that can be woven into class curriculum dealing with aggression and problem solving strategies. A program entitled Making Choices was piloted in grades third through sixth (Nash, Fraser, Galinsky, & Kupper, 2003). This program was composed of multiple units that included lessons designed to aid children in processing information, making friends, and adapting socially in the classroom environment (Nash et al., 2003). Researchers hoped that this program, through teaching better problem solving skills would help aggressive students, with low information processing skills, form positive relationships with other students and adults (Nash et al., 2003). Nonaggressive-accepted and aggressive-accepted students benefited from this type of program. Aggressive-rejected and nonaggressive-rejected students did not show improvements in social behaviors and friendships through use of this program (Nash et al., 2003).
Another program aimed at improving upon social relationships was titled the Responsive Classroom approach. This program focused on improving and promoting positive teacher-student relationships through daily class meetings, student involvement in creation of classroom procedures, and encouragement by the classroom teachers (Rimm-Kauhman & Chiu, 2007). Rimm-Kauhman & Chiu (2007) found that this program helped make the classroom a more comfortable place for children to share problems and concerns. Shapiro & Watson (2000) agree that conflict resolution depends upon open class discussion. An open class discussion develops problem solving strategies that students can share with each other. By frequently practicing problem solving strategies and role playing, students will gain the tools they need to use inside and outside the classroom (Shapiro & Watson, 2000).
Teachers play a major role in demonstrating, practicing, and modeling proper ways to resolve conflicts. Many students look to them for advice on how to handle many situations they face. A teacher especially influences early elementary students’ problem solving (Malloy & McMurray, 1996). Generally, classroom teachers praise their students when resolutions are found (Shapiro & Watson, 2000). Students that are mutual friends are more likely to reach a conflict resolution on their own using problem solving strategies (as cited in Malloy & McMurray, 1996).
Not all students can use problem solving strategies easily. Students with disabilities, especially those that struggle communicating verbally, tend to go to a teacher for assistance when faced with a conflict (as cited in Malloy & McMurray, 1996). Children with low information processing skills use aggressive tactics to resolve conflicts and children with high information processing skills are less likely to use aggression (Nash, Fraser, Galinsky, & Kupper, 2003). These students may use aggression unconsciously, not knowing how inappropriate their tactics may be. The central executive, part of the working memory, is responsible for making decisions and solving problems. It pulls information from the visualspatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and the episodic buffer (Matlin, 2005). If students have visual processing or auditory processing difficulties they may have difficulties storing information leading to difficulties resolving conflicts and they may resort to aggression. Students that come from homes of a low poverty level generally are delayed in intellectual development, which leads to behavior and emotional problems (as cited in Rimm-Kauhman & Chiu, 2007). Results of a study conducted by Malloy & McMurray (1996) found that most student conflicts in an early elementary classroom setting occurred between a student with a disability and a student without a disability and most were resolved with the teacher’s help. Research has discovered that aggression is more commonly used by early elementary students to resolve problems (Nash et al., 2003). By late elementary, those children who use aggression to solve conflicts are not easily accepted by other children (as cited in Nash et al., 2003).
School districts look to programs that can be woven into class curriculum dealing with aggression and problem solving strategies. A program entitled Making Choices was piloted in grades third through sixth (Nash, Fraser, Galinsky, & Kupper, 2003). This program was composed of multiple units that included lessons designed to aid children in processing information, making friends, and adapting socially in the classroom environment (Nash et al., 2003). Researchers hoped that this program, through teaching better problem solving skills would help aggressive students, with low information processing skills, form positive relationships with other students and adults (Nash et al., 2003). Nonaggressive-accepted and aggressive-accepted students benefited from this type of program. Aggressive-rejected and nonaggressive-rejected students did not show improvements in social behaviors and friendships through use of this program (Nash et al., 2003).
Another program aimed at improving upon social relationships was titled the Responsive Classroom approach. This program focused on improving and promoting positive teacher-student relationships through daily class meetings, student involvement in creation of classroom procedures, and encouragement by the classroom teachers (Rimm-Kauhman & Chiu, 2007). Rimm-Kauhman & Chiu (2007) found that this program helped make the classroom a more comfortable place for children to share problems and concerns. Shapiro & Watson (2000) agree that conflict resolution depends upon open class discussion. An open class discussion develops problem solving strategies that students can share with each other. By frequently practicing problem solving strategies and role playing, students will gain the tools they need to use inside and outside the classroom (Shapiro & Watson, 2000).
Reflection
Violence in the classroom concerns me as an educator and a mother of a three-year old. I know that it is a major concern in our school district. I am not surprised by the research I found on conflict resolution. Many young children begin forming peer relationships and begin learning to play with other children for the first time entering preschool. Students with disabilities, especially ones who may have problems communicating verbally, obviously will have a difficult time resolving conflicts in the classroom. These students may resort to more aggressive behaviors because of their difficulties in communicating and they may experience feelings of frustration.
The Making Choices program study revealed that older children are rejected when they resort to violence. I’ve noticed this in my own classroom. Students are usually afraid of and avoid children that display aggressive behaviors. They feel threatened by them and exclude them from play activities on the playground. I do agree with some of the findings of this study, however this program did have its limitations. It was not finished during the school year because of scheduling problems, teachers were allowed to rate student aggression, and the subjects studied were mostly gifted European-American students. In the future this same study should be conducted in a more culturally diverse classroom and teachers should not be the only observers rating aggression. Teachers may be biased based on problem behaviors or discipline problems experienced earlier in the classroom.
The Responsive Classroom approach seems similar to a program we conduct in our school district called Second Step. It is a program taught by classroom teachers helping with bullying, communicating, and other social problems. Students are asked to role play different situations and give suggestions as to how problems can be solved. I believe in this program’s effectiveness. It helps open up the lines of communication in the classroom and it also helps me, as the teacher, become aware of situations that may occur on the playground or at home that students need to deal with every day. Obviously resolving conflicts between students is extremely important. We cannot ignore conflicts that occur in our classrooms. The research I have collected backs up the fact that students need to openly discuss problems and find solutions together to everyday problems.
The following sites are helpful references with ideas and activities to use in the classroom to aid in conflict resolution.
Conflict Resolution Definitions - has definitions of different types of conflicts
Conflict Resolution Lesson Plans - includes several conflict resolution lesson plans to use in any classroom
The Making Choices program study revealed that older children are rejected when they resort to violence. I’ve noticed this in my own classroom. Students are usually afraid of and avoid children that display aggressive behaviors. They feel threatened by them and exclude them from play activities on the playground. I do agree with some of the findings of this study, however this program did have its limitations. It was not finished during the school year because of scheduling problems, teachers were allowed to rate student aggression, and the subjects studied were mostly gifted European-American students. In the future this same study should be conducted in a more culturally diverse classroom and teachers should not be the only observers rating aggression. Teachers may be biased based on problem behaviors or discipline problems experienced earlier in the classroom.
The Responsive Classroom approach seems similar to a program we conduct in our school district called Second Step. It is a program taught by classroom teachers helping with bullying, communicating, and other social problems. Students are asked to role play different situations and give suggestions as to how problems can be solved. I believe in this program’s effectiveness. It helps open up the lines of communication in the classroom and it also helps me, as the teacher, become aware of situations that may occur on the playground or at home that students need to deal with every day. Obviously resolving conflicts between students is extremely important. We cannot ignore conflicts that occur in our classrooms. The research I have collected backs up the fact that students need to openly discuss problems and find solutions together to everyday problems.
The following sites are helpful references with ideas and activities to use in the classroom to aid in conflict resolution.
Conflict Resolution Definitions - has definitions of different types of conflicts
Conflict Resolution Lesson Plans - includes several conflict resolution lesson plans to use in any classroom
Resources
Malloy, H., & McMurray, P. (1996). Conflict strategies and resolutions: Peer conflict in an integrated early childhood classroom. Early Childhood Quarterly, 11, 185-206.
Matlin, M.W. (2005). Cognition. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wile & Sons, Inc.
Nash, J., Fraser, M., Galinsky, M., & Kupper, L. (2003). Early development and pilot testing of a problem-solving skills-training program for children. Research on Social Work, 13, 432-450. Retrieved June 18, 2007, from http://rsw.sagepub.com
Rimm-Kauhman, S.E., & Chiu, Y.I. (2007). Promoting social and academic competence in the classroom: An intervention study examining the contribution of the Responsive Classroom approach. Psychology in the Schools, 44(4), 397-413.
Shapiro, D. & Watson, A. (2000, Apr). Using the theory of planned behavior to induce problem solving in schools. Negotiation Journal, 16(2), 183-190.
Matlin, M.W. (2005). Cognition. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wile & Sons, Inc.
Nash, J., Fraser, M., Galinsky, M., & Kupper, L. (2003). Early development and pilot testing of a problem-solving skills-training program for children. Research on Social Work, 13, 432-450. Retrieved June 18, 2007, from http://rsw.sagepub.com
Rimm-Kauhman, S.E., & Chiu, Y.I. (2007). Promoting social and academic competence in the classroom: An intervention study examining the contribution of the Responsive Classroom approach. Psychology in the Schools, 44(4), 397-413.
Shapiro, D. & Watson, A. (2000, Apr). Using the theory of planned behavior to induce problem solving in schools. Negotiation Journal, 16(2), 183-190.
Effectively Teaching Problem Solving
Teachers struggle everyday with how to effectively teach their students problem solving strategies that can be used during classroom instruction. Sometimes teachers lead too much during classroom discussion, facilitate all of the questioning, and decrease the amount of brainstorming between students. When teachers ask all the questions during classroom instruction, problem solving skills are defeated, students are less likely to respond to the questions presented, and those simple questions facilitated by the teacher only develop good recall of information by students (Wood, 1988; Myren, 1996). Educators need to allow students to openly discuss with each other appropriate questions to ask of each other during classroom instruction. By allowing time for brainstorming and open discussion, students are more open to use their own creativity and will bounce new ideas between them. Students may not learn as much factual information from a student led class discussion, but it all depends upon how the teacher conducts the lesson in the classroom. By first modeling how to ask good discussion questions, teachers will lead the students to become better thinkers and they will be able to identify better problem solving techniques (Wood, 1988). Lessons can then be structured around questions that students ask before instruction (Beyer, 1998).
Problem solving strategies must help each individual involved reach each other’s own needs (Shapiro & Watson, 2000). The following activities allow students to become active participants in problem solving: brainstorming, opening up class discussions, and using flow charts to organize discussed information (Hunkins, 1976). While openly discussing ideas, students need to learn that making mistakes during problem solving is acceptable and solutions can be found within them (Myren, 2006).
Palmer & Wehmeyer (2003) researched fourteen teachers, grades kindergarten through fifth, in a pilot program titled Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction. This program was designed to teach educators to teach students to direct their own learning through problem solving and promote self-determination. After students were presented a problem, students were asked to answer a set of questions such as:
What do I want to learn? What do I know about it? What must change for me to learn what I don’t know? What can I do to make this happen? (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003, p. 116)
Each set of questions are changed to meet the needs of different ability levels and they each are followed by instructional objectives for the teacher. The questions and objectives are constructed to enable goal setting and self-guided learning in the classroom (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003).
Evaluation of the program was done by Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS) process that measures the programs’ efficiency. Results indicated that very young children, with aid of a teacher, are able to set learning goals. Results also indicated that students benefited from the program and were able to identify areas in their learning that needed improvement. Teachers found that the program was successful and it taught students to set personal goals and reflect on their learning, but that there was too little time to implement the program effectively (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003).
Problem solving strategies must help each individual involved reach each other’s own needs (Shapiro & Watson, 2000). The following activities allow students to become active participants in problem solving: brainstorming, opening up class discussions, and using flow charts to organize discussed information (Hunkins, 1976). While openly discussing ideas, students need to learn that making mistakes during problem solving is acceptable and solutions can be found within them (Myren, 2006).
Palmer & Wehmeyer (2003) researched fourteen teachers, grades kindergarten through fifth, in a pilot program titled Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction. This program was designed to teach educators to teach students to direct their own learning through problem solving and promote self-determination. After students were presented a problem, students were asked to answer a set of questions such as:
What do I want to learn? What do I know about it? What must change for me to learn what I don’t know? What can I do to make this happen? (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003, p. 116)
Each set of questions are changed to meet the needs of different ability levels and they each are followed by instructional objectives for the teacher. The questions and objectives are constructed to enable goal setting and self-guided learning in the classroom (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003).
Evaluation of the program was done by Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS) process that measures the programs’ efficiency. Results indicated that very young children, with aid of a teacher, are able to set learning goals. Results also indicated that students benefited from the program and were able to identify areas in their learning that needed improvement. Teachers found that the program was successful and it taught students to set personal goals and reflect on their learning, but that there was too little time to implement the program effectively (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003).
Reflection
Researchers are quick to decide if a theory or model works upon one study. I keep reading in each study I come across on problem solving that teachers need more time to implement programs effectively. A program will only show true results if given enough time to be effective. I also feel that giving a program only one year does not give researchers enough information to determine if it was effective, but I also understand that this is how research is conducted.
Another underlying idea in each study is open class discussion. Allow students to collaborate, solve problems collectively, and direct their own learning. The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction program seems like an introduction to an inquiry based learning unit. This model seems like a great way to encourage children to set goals for their own learning. Students are often led by teachers throughout the school year, but this program lets students self-direct their own learning and reflect upon goals that they set for themselves throughout the school year. This program would work well in any subject area.
I do agree with and believe that sometimes as teachers we do lead too much during classroom instruction. We question students with very simple questions that we already know the answers to. I know that I have tried to improve upon this in my own classroom. Each year we try to incorporate more inquiry based learning units in our instruction. One unit that students enjoy every year is our “Creatures of the Night” unit. We begin with a KWL (what you know, what you want to learn, what you have learned) chart. Our unit then proceeds from the student generated KWL. Students even choose what types of performance assessments they will produce and how they should be evaluated. Each year we teachers learn more about nocturnal animals because the students have led us in the direction of study. At the end of the unit we invite parents, friends, faculty, and other family members to a “Nocturnal Night” at our school. We display the information students learned and projects created during the unit.
These websites have helpful ways to teach effective problem solving skills.
Problem Solving and Creativity
Problem Solving Techniques
Another underlying idea in each study is open class discussion. Allow students to collaborate, solve problems collectively, and direct their own learning. The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction program seems like an introduction to an inquiry based learning unit. This model seems like a great way to encourage children to set goals for their own learning. Students are often led by teachers throughout the school year, but this program lets students self-direct their own learning and reflect upon goals that they set for themselves throughout the school year. This program would work well in any subject area.
I do agree with and believe that sometimes as teachers we do lead too much during classroom instruction. We question students with very simple questions that we already know the answers to. I know that I have tried to improve upon this in my own classroom. Each year we try to incorporate more inquiry based learning units in our instruction. One unit that students enjoy every year is our “Creatures of the Night” unit. We begin with a KWL (what you know, what you want to learn, what you have learned) chart. Our unit then proceeds from the student generated KWL. Students even choose what types of performance assessments they will produce and how they should be evaluated. Each year we teachers learn more about nocturnal animals because the students have led us in the direction of study. At the end of the unit we invite parents, friends, faculty, and other family members to a “Nocturnal Night” at our school. We display the information students learned and projects created during the unit.
These websites have helpful ways to teach effective problem solving skills.
Problem Solving and Creativity
Problem Solving Techniques
Resources
Beyer, B. (1998, May/June). Improving Student Thinking. The Clearing House, 126-131.
Hunkins, F. (1976). Involving Students in Questioning. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Inc.
Myren, C. (1996, Oct). Direct modeling and invented procedures: Building on students’ informal strategies. Teaching Children Mathematics, 3(2), 92-95.
Palmer, S., & Wehmeyer, M. (2003 Mar/Apr). Promoting self-determination in early elementary school: Teaching self-regulated problem-solving and goal-setting skills. Remedial and Special Education, 24(2), 115-126.
Shapiro, D. & Watson, A. (2000, Apr). Using the theory of planned behavior to induce problem solving in schools. Negotiation Journal, 16(2), 183-190.
Wood, D. (1988). How Children Think and Learn. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Hunkins, F. (1976). Involving Students in Questioning. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Inc.
Myren, C. (1996, Oct). Direct modeling and invented procedures: Building on students’ informal strategies. Teaching Children Mathematics, 3(2), 92-95.
Palmer, S., & Wehmeyer, M. (2003 Mar/Apr). Promoting self-determination in early elementary school: Teaching self-regulated problem-solving and goal-setting skills. Remedial and Special Education, 24(2), 115-126.
Shapiro, D. & Watson, A. (2000, Apr). Using the theory of planned behavior to induce problem solving in schools. Negotiation Journal, 16(2), 183-190.
Wood, D. (1988). How Children Think and Learn. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Classroom Problem Solving: Reading
An area that students may experience the most difficulty in is reading. Reading skills involve comprehending material, making predictions, identifying main idea, making judgments and decisions, and using proper resources. When students are given the opportunity to work together with other students while reading material they are more likely to discuss problem solving processes (Walker, 2005). Problem solving techniques in reading must be modeled, organized, and well-planned by the classroom teacher (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006).
Walker (2005) conducted a study in a third grade classroom using a self-questioning technique during reading instruction. The self-questioning technique was hypothesized to aid students in better prediction of outcomes in reading, as compared to students who only answered questions directed by the teacher. Along with this technique, students used self-evaluation sheets to aid in class discussion and solve problems during reading (Walker, 2005).
The following self-directed questions were first demonstrated by the teacher and then practiced by students:
What must I do? I must predict what might happen. I predict... What’s my plan? I must use the text and what I know. Does that make sense? Oops! It doesn’t. I can change my prediction. Did it fit? Yes, I knew it! That sure fits. I am on the right track. (Walker, 2005, p. 689)
After the reading, students were guided through self-evaluation sheets answering questions reflecting upon their self-questioning (Walker, 2005). Results concluded that this helped some students with problem solving, questioning, and predicting in reading. Results also showed that quiet students did not benefit from the self-questioning technique and continued to struggle with reading (Walker, 2005).
Struggling readers may benefit from story mapping, or story webbing, and outlining. A story web is an organized way to help students pick out important information in their reading; story webs can be very simple at the beginning of the school year and then develop into more complex webs (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006). Arthaud & Goracke (2006) conducted a study in a fourth grade classroom to determine whether story webs and outlining would help struggling readers. The fourth grade classroom observed was composed of twenty students, four of them having an individualized education plan. The students were first taught how to use the story web by a demonstration from the teacher. Then students were instructed to use the web while reading Sarah, Plain, and Tall. After students began to master story webs in reading, they were taught to carry them over into other subjects (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006).
Results showed that students were able to take responsibility for their own learning by using the story webs. Students with higher reading levels were easily able to carry the webs over into the other subjects. Students with lower reading levels benefited by using the story webs, but continued to use the teacher’s help in completing them. Students with individualized education plans struggled using the story webs and continually needed aid from the teacher. The teacher commented that using the story webs early on in the school year did help encourage students to read and aided in reading comprehension (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006).
Walker (2005) conducted a study in a third grade classroom using a self-questioning technique during reading instruction. The self-questioning technique was hypothesized to aid students in better prediction of outcomes in reading, as compared to students who only answered questions directed by the teacher. Along with this technique, students used self-evaluation sheets to aid in class discussion and solve problems during reading (Walker, 2005).
The following self-directed questions were first demonstrated by the teacher and then practiced by students:
What must I do? I must predict what might happen. I predict... What’s my plan? I must use the text and what I know. Does that make sense? Oops! It doesn’t. I can change my prediction. Did it fit? Yes, I knew it! That sure fits. I am on the right track. (Walker, 2005, p. 689)
After the reading, students were guided through self-evaluation sheets answering questions reflecting upon their self-questioning (Walker, 2005). Results concluded that this helped some students with problem solving, questioning, and predicting in reading. Results also showed that quiet students did not benefit from the self-questioning technique and continued to struggle with reading (Walker, 2005).
Struggling readers may benefit from story mapping, or story webbing, and outlining. A story web is an organized way to help students pick out important information in their reading; story webs can be very simple at the beginning of the school year and then develop into more complex webs (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006). Arthaud & Goracke (2006) conducted a study in a fourth grade classroom to determine whether story webs and outlining would help struggling readers. The fourth grade classroom observed was composed of twenty students, four of them having an individualized education plan. The students were first taught how to use the story web by a demonstration from the teacher. Then students were instructed to use the web while reading Sarah, Plain, and Tall. After students began to master story webs in reading, they were taught to carry them over into other subjects (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006).
Results showed that students were able to take responsibility for their own learning by using the story webs. Students with higher reading levels were easily able to carry the webs over into the other subjects. Students with lower reading levels benefited by using the story webs, but continued to use the teacher’s help in completing them. Students with individualized education plans struggled using the story webs and continually needed aid from the teacher. The teacher commented that using the story webs early on in the school year did help encourage students to read and aided in reading comprehension (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006).
Reflection
Reading is a difficult subject for most children. In fourth grade we are tested in the area of reading and it is a major focus of reform going into the next school year. The research I have read stresses organization and discussion. It seems like both studies aided children with average reading abilities in improving comprehension and problem solving in reading class. What still lies here is how do we help our struggling readers? Both studies implied that struggling readers still needed assistance from the classroom teacher while self-questioning or story webbing.
I would like to try the self-directed questioning techniques in my classroom this fall. I feel like it is a great way to model problem solving. Even struggling readers could use this as a guide to reading comprehension. I could type these self-directed questions on a laminated handout kept in the students’ portfolios. We can then refer to it during reading instruction.
Reading resource books are also important ways to develop good problem solving skills. For example, I will ask my students this question: In which book can I find the 2005 population of China? While an encyclopedia, almanac, dictionary, atlas, and thesaurus are displayed on the front table, I invite students to investigate and solve this problem. We turn it into a scavenger hunt. These sources are frequently referred to during reading and spelling activities.
This site below has helpful reading resources for problem solving.
PBS Teachers
I would like to try the self-directed questioning techniques in my classroom this fall. I feel like it is a great way to model problem solving. Even struggling readers could use this as a guide to reading comprehension. I could type these self-directed questions on a laminated handout kept in the students’ portfolios. We can then refer to it during reading instruction.
Reading resource books are also important ways to develop good problem solving skills. For example, I will ask my students this question: In which book can I find the 2005 population of China? While an encyclopedia, almanac, dictionary, atlas, and thesaurus are displayed on the front table, I invite students to investigate and solve this problem. We turn it into a scavenger hunt. These sources are frequently referred to during reading and spelling activities.
This site below has helpful reading resources for problem solving.
PBS Teachers
Resources
Arthaud, T., & Goracke, T. (2006, Mar). Implementing a structured story web and outline strategy to assist struggling readers. The Reading Teacher, 59(6), 581-586.
Walker, B. (2005, Apr). Thinking aloud: Struggling readers often require more than a model. The Reading Teacher, 58(7), 688-692.
Walker, B. (2005, Apr). Thinking aloud: Struggling readers often require more than a model. The Reading Teacher, 58(7), 688-692.
Classroom Problem Solving: Math
Problem solving is mostly associated with math skills. Problem solving skills are essential to understanding and succeeding in mathematics. During the early elementary years of school children frequently go to the teacher for answers to a math problem when they do not know a solution (Myren, 1996). Students believe that every problem only has one way to be solved and those teachers or other adults are the ones to ask for a solution (Myren, 1996). To solve this dilemma teachers often allow students to work together in groups to solve problems and facilitate learning. Teachers may use children’s math abilities as a way to organize and assemble group activities, although research has stated that higher math ability students may discourage lower ability students from participating in group problem solving by controlling all operations of the group (as cited in Wilczenski, Bontrager, Ventrone, & Correia, 2001). Before assembling groups in a classroom, teachers must observe student behavior and take it into consideration to assure that each member of the group will feel confident in his/her participation (Wilczenski et al., 2001). Other research suggests that the level of student ability, group placement, and a student’s self-awareness may collectively play a role in the metacognitive processes during mathematical problem solving (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1997).
Teachers hope that organizing students into cooperative learning groups will facilitate learning for all members of the group. Researchers Wilczenski, Bontrager, Ventrone, & Correia (2001) studied the way students work cooperatively in groups to solve a math problem using problem solving skills. They observed how group members worked together with problem solving and also monitored each student’s personal success (Wilczenski et al., 2001). Results showed well functioning groups were successful in problem solving. Groups that did not cooperate well together scored poorly on the observations, and they also did not perform better than the control group (control group only worked individually). These results prove that group members who successfully work together will produce good quality work (Wilczenski et al., 2001).
Researchers Artzt & Armour-Thomas (1997) observed the metacognitive abilities of math students in small groups and also interviewed students about how they perceive themselves as math students and their feelings toward working in a small group setting. Researchers chose a money problem for the students to solve based on the fact that there is no set step-by-step procedure to solve it. Teachers of the students also indicated that a money problem was one that students of varying ability levels could solve and it would take organization within the group to find a solution (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1997).
Researchers observed not only how students cognitively solved the particular problem together, but also how they planned and organized the information metacognitively. Following group work students were interviewed and asked multiple questions about how they felt during group work (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1997). Higher ability math students reported feeling anxious and not feeling confident in finding a solution to the given problem, but these same students had many positive comments to say about working together in groups. Other higher ability students reported feeling confident and excited about working on the problem, but reported negative feeling about group work. Lower ability students reported feeling confused and they wanted to find their own solutions to the problem, but they all reported positive comments about working together in groups (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1997).
Myren (1996) conducted a study in a kindergarten classroom during math class also investigating problem solving during group work. The purpose was to encourage students to search for solutions within themselves and other group members, rather than asking the teacher. The students were separated into groups of eight or ten students. The groups were given the same math problem to solve. In the groups students were encouraged to draw, write, and discuss multiple solutions to the given problem. After the problem was read aloud to the groups of students, the teacher walked around the room and checked for understanding. Then the teacher gave each student a piece of paper to draw or write solutions. The teacher then observed problem solving techniques posed by each student within the groups. If while groups were working a student had a question, he or she was directed back to his or her group to find an answer. After each group had reached a solution, the teacher chose students from each group to present his or her problem solving strategy (Myren 1996).
The results showed that students were challenged to use problem solving skills on their own and use other group members as ways to clarify understanding of math problems. When students presented what they learned to the class, other students seemed to better understand how to solve the math problem. Myren (1996) suggests the following strategies for problem solving in the classroom: allow children plenty of time to read and reread the problem to check for understanding, interview students to check for understanding, and keep evidence of problem solving over the course of the year to monitor improvements.
Teachers hope that organizing students into cooperative learning groups will facilitate learning for all members of the group. Researchers Wilczenski, Bontrager, Ventrone, & Correia (2001) studied the way students work cooperatively in groups to solve a math problem using problem solving skills. They observed how group members worked together with problem solving and also monitored each student’s personal success (Wilczenski et al., 2001). Results showed well functioning groups were successful in problem solving. Groups that did not cooperate well together scored poorly on the observations, and they also did not perform better than the control group (control group only worked individually). These results prove that group members who successfully work together will produce good quality work (Wilczenski et al., 2001).
Researchers Artzt & Armour-Thomas (1997) observed the metacognitive abilities of math students in small groups and also interviewed students about how they perceive themselves as math students and their feelings toward working in a small group setting. Researchers chose a money problem for the students to solve based on the fact that there is no set step-by-step procedure to solve it. Teachers of the students also indicated that a money problem was one that students of varying ability levels could solve and it would take organization within the group to find a solution (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1997).
Researchers observed not only how students cognitively solved the particular problem together, but also how they planned and organized the information metacognitively. Following group work students were interviewed and asked multiple questions about how they felt during group work (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1997). Higher ability math students reported feeling anxious and not feeling confident in finding a solution to the given problem, but these same students had many positive comments to say about working together in groups. Other higher ability students reported feeling confident and excited about working on the problem, but reported negative feeling about group work. Lower ability students reported feeling confused and they wanted to find their own solutions to the problem, but they all reported positive comments about working together in groups (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1997).
Myren (1996) conducted a study in a kindergarten classroom during math class also investigating problem solving during group work. The purpose was to encourage students to search for solutions within themselves and other group members, rather than asking the teacher. The students were separated into groups of eight or ten students. The groups were given the same math problem to solve. In the groups students were encouraged to draw, write, and discuss multiple solutions to the given problem. After the problem was read aloud to the groups of students, the teacher walked around the room and checked for understanding. Then the teacher gave each student a piece of paper to draw or write solutions. The teacher then observed problem solving techniques posed by each student within the groups. If while groups were working a student had a question, he or she was directed back to his or her group to find an answer. After each group had reached a solution, the teacher chose students from each group to present his or her problem solving strategy (Myren 1996).
The results showed that students were challenged to use problem solving skills on their own and use other group members as ways to clarify understanding of math problems. When students presented what they learned to the class, other students seemed to better understand how to solve the math problem. Myren (1996) suggests the following strategies for problem solving in the classroom: allow children plenty of time to read and reread the problem to check for understanding, interview students to check for understanding, and keep evidence of problem solving over the course of the year to monitor improvements.
Reflection
As teachers we often place students into groups for numerous reasons and we assign them multiple tasks. Often times we divide students up according to their ability levels. We hope that stronger students within each group will facilitate learning from the other participating students. Math is a subject that many students struggle with in the classroom, especially in the fourth grade. The studies that I read revealed to me that group work in math does not always boost student confidence resulting in poor problem solving. When students are not confident in their abilities or are overshadowed by students of higher abilities, they may not perform at their best. Some students respond well and perform well, while others see the task as confusing and perform poorly.
Both studies of older students based mathematical abilities upon math scores form the MAT. This test, similar to the ISAT, is not the only way to assess student mathematical abilities. Mathematical abilities may also be determined by teacher observation during math lessons, homework grades, and weekly assignments. This may have an effect on the results of both studies.
The study involving only kindergarten students focused on how young students can collectively solve problems. I believe the younger we start teaching children to rely on others for answers besides the teacher, the better they will become at solving problems. I enjoyed reading that students as young as kindergarten could discuss different solutions to a math problem. They also can learn to rely upon each other for solutions, rather than the teacher. This teaches them from an early age to collaborate on a problem and to communicate ideas with each other.
In my fourth grade classroom I try to use smaller groups of two or three students rather than four or five when doing group work. Sometimes students feel more comfortable in smaller group settings. I also try to give each child a role to fulfill: facilitator, recorder, materials manager. In the past I have observed that when students are assigned a specific job they seem to gain more confidence in themselves. When assembling groups I try to separate them by mathematical abilities on math assessments, my observations in the classroom, and self-confidence.
During a class discussion one day, one of the teachers in my group shared that she looks for leadership from students before assigning them into groups. She commented that these students, who demonstrate leadership skills, may not be the best students academically, but they can take control of the group and facilitate learning. Another teacher commented that she places students into groups according to their social abilities. The students with stronger abilities seem to help encourage others to participate and this helps build confidence in problem solving.
To encourage better problem solving skills in my students, I have a “problem of the day” every morning. This is part of a daily math meeting. A different student is assigned as a math meeting assistant every day. The math meeting assistant is able to discuss how he/she solved the math problem. If a student is incorrect, I then ask for another student to share how he/she solved the problem.
The following sites included math problem solving activities or guides in teacher problem solving.
Math Activity
The Math Forum
Both studies of older students based mathematical abilities upon math scores form the MAT. This test, similar to the ISAT, is not the only way to assess student mathematical abilities. Mathematical abilities may also be determined by teacher observation during math lessons, homework grades, and weekly assignments. This may have an effect on the results of both studies.
The study involving only kindergarten students focused on how young students can collectively solve problems. I believe the younger we start teaching children to rely on others for answers besides the teacher, the better they will become at solving problems. I enjoyed reading that students as young as kindergarten could discuss different solutions to a math problem. They also can learn to rely upon each other for solutions, rather than the teacher. This teaches them from an early age to collaborate on a problem and to communicate ideas with each other.
In my fourth grade classroom I try to use smaller groups of two or three students rather than four or five when doing group work. Sometimes students feel more comfortable in smaller group settings. I also try to give each child a role to fulfill: facilitator, recorder, materials manager. In the past I have observed that when students are assigned a specific job they seem to gain more confidence in themselves. When assembling groups I try to separate them by mathematical abilities on math assessments, my observations in the classroom, and self-confidence.
During a class discussion one day, one of the teachers in my group shared that she looks for leadership from students before assigning them into groups. She commented that these students, who demonstrate leadership skills, may not be the best students academically, but they can take control of the group and facilitate learning. Another teacher commented that she places students into groups according to their social abilities. The students with stronger abilities seem to help encourage others to participate and this helps build confidence in problem solving.
To encourage better problem solving skills in my students, I have a “problem of the day” every morning. This is part of a daily math meeting. A different student is assigned as a math meeting assistant every day. The math meeting assistant is able to discuss how he/she solved the math problem. If a student is incorrect, I then ask for another student to share how he/she solved the problem.
The following sites included math problem solving activities or guides in teacher problem solving.
Math Activity
The Math Forum
Resources
Artzt, A. & Armour-Thomas, E. (1997). Mathematical problem solving in small groups: Exploring the interplay of students’ metacognitive behaviors, perceptions, and ability levels. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 16(1), 63-74.
Myren, C. (1996, Oct). Direct modeling and invented procedures: Building on students’ informal strategies. Teaching Children Mathematics, 3(2), 92-95.
Wilczenski, F., Bontrager, T., Ventrone, P., & Correia, M. (2001). Observing collaborative problem-solving processes and outcomes. Psychology in the Schools, 38(3), 269-281.
Myren, C. (1996, Oct). Direct modeling and invented procedures: Building on students’ informal strategies. Teaching Children Mathematics, 3(2), 92-95.
Wilczenski, F., Bontrager, T., Ventrone, P., & Correia, M. (2001). Observing collaborative problem-solving processes and outcomes. Psychology in the Schools, 38(3), 269-281.
Thursday, June 21, 2007
Classroom Problem Solving: Science
Science is a subject that asks students to investigate and explore. The scientific method is used to solve problems in science class. This includes identifying the problem, observing materials, making a hypothesis, conducting the experiment, analyze the data, and draw a conclusion. Skills needed in science are closely related to skills needed in reading. One of the first steps to the scientific method is to identify the problem. This first step is just as important in science as making predictions when reading text. Both skills prove that students understand the material. Sharing different approaches to a problem is very similar to identifying important and unimportant information in reading. This skill allows students to look at problems through a different perspective (Minnick & Alvermann, 1991).
To understand science, students must be armed with effective problem solving strategies that organize learned information. Research has found that fifth through eighth grade students do not possess basic science skills needed for effective problem solving (Minnick & Alvermann, 1991). Students usually are forced to listen while a teacher lectures and read the textbook themselves (Coleman, 1998). At an early age students must be taught to observe, classify, and describe objects. Science problem solving involves first to examine each proposed problem carefully, share multiple solutions, and eventually reached the desired solution. Teachers must allow students to take the time they need to learn basic science skills and allow frequent practice with hands-on activities and materials (Minnick & Alvermann, 1991). Science teachers have recently promoted more use of student exploration through hands-on activities and computers to help students solve problems. One problem they have discovered in doing so is that students do not spend enough time reflecting upon and collecting data, therefore they may not understand the results they find (Coleman, 1998).
Coleman (1998) conducted a study determining if students’ problem solving skills in science would benefit from explaining each step of different science processes. It was hypothesized that students would retain more of the scientific information and they would then apply it to real world settings. Participants included forty-eight students in the fourth and fifth grades divided into teams. Students were taught a unit about plants use of photosynthesis. During the unit students used numerous problem solving activities. Each lesson began with a ten to twenty minute lecture, followed by a ten to twenty minute group discussion, and then groups were allowed to work together on assignments for ten to twenty minutes. They were also instructed to answer specific questions prompting them for explanations of scientific processes including: explain what you just did in your own words, explain why you think your answer is correct, connect your explanation to the material learned in class using scientific vocabulary, and connect your explanation to real world settings (Coleman, 1998).
Results showed that students benefited from explaining activities completed in class, although during group discussion sometimes one student’s explanation would be accepted by the entire group. Without a teacher prompting discussion, students would just accept one point of view. The most difficult explanation for students was to connect material learned in class to the real world. This is a difficult task for students at this grade level (Coleman, 1998).
Other research suggests different ways to involve writing in science class to improve problem solving. One suggestion is to write problems approached in class in a journal. Have students share in journal writings different ways to approach the problem. As students are writing, the teacher should move around the room and encourage group discussion and check for understanding. Then teachers should have groups share ideas and write them on the board or chart paper (Jablon, 2006). Learning logs can also be used to organize science information and to solve problems. After these are demonstrated, modeled, and practiced they can easily facilitate class discussion. Students divide the log into two columns: one for notes and the other for further questions, suggestions, and connections. Teachers can use these logs to monitor student learning and respond to student questions (Steenson, 2006).
The Thayer Model is another way to aid students’ problem solving skills in science class. The Thayer Model is composed of four stages: identify the problem, identify conditions in which a solution can be found, create solutions for the problem, and finally look at the problem again before repeating the cycle. Each time the cycle is completed students move closer to the best solution to a problem. This model can be used individually or in groups (Fay, 2006).
During the first stage, identify the problem, students are presented with a scenario and asked to identify the problem. The second stage, identify conditions in which a solution can be found, includes investigating safety concerns when conducting an experiment. Students must make sure that all processes involved are safe and legal. The third stage, create solutions for the problem, involves brainstorming of multiple solutions. The fourth stage, look at the problem again, involves asking whether or not the problem can be solved. Then if the problem cannot be solved by proposed means, it may be possible to repeat the cycle. This approach encourages students to investigate real-life problems, apply real world solutions, and actively engage in science investigation (Fay, 2006).
To understand science, students must be armed with effective problem solving strategies that organize learned information. Research has found that fifth through eighth grade students do not possess basic science skills needed for effective problem solving (Minnick & Alvermann, 1991). Students usually are forced to listen while a teacher lectures and read the textbook themselves (Coleman, 1998). At an early age students must be taught to observe, classify, and describe objects. Science problem solving involves first to examine each proposed problem carefully, share multiple solutions, and eventually reached the desired solution. Teachers must allow students to take the time they need to learn basic science skills and allow frequent practice with hands-on activities and materials (Minnick & Alvermann, 1991). Science teachers have recently promoted more use of student exploration through hands-on activities and computers to help students solve problems. One problem they have discovered in doing so is that students do not spend enough time reflecting upon and collecting data, therefore they may not understand the results they find (Coleman, 1998).
Coleman (1998) conducted a study determining if students’ problem solving skills in science would benefit from explaining each step of different science processes. It was hypothesized that students would retain more of the scientific information and they would then apply it to real world settings. Participants included forty-eight students in the fourth and fifth grades divided into teams. Students were taught a unit about plants use of photosynthesis. During the unit students used numerous problem solving activities. Each lesson began with a ten to twenty minute lecture, followed by a ten to twenty minute group discussion, and then groups were allowed to work together on assignments for ten to twenty minutes. They were also instructed to answer specific questions prompting them for explanations of scientific processes including: explain what you just did in your own words, explain why you think your answer is correct, connect your explanation to the material learned in class using scientific vocabulary, and connect your explanation to real world settings (Coleman, 1998).
Results showed that students benefited from explaining activities completed in class, although during group discussion sometimes one student’s explanation would be accepted by the entire group. Without a teacher prompting discussion, students would just accept one point of view. The most difficult explanation for students was to connect material learned in class to the real world. This is a difficult task for students at this grade level (Coleman, 1998).
Other research suggests different ways to involve writing in science class to improve problem solving. One suggestion is to write problems approached in class in a journal. Have students share in journal writings different ways to approach the problem. As students are writing, the teacher should move around the room and encourage group discussion and check for understanding. Then teachers should have groups share ideas and write them on the board or chart paper (Jablon, 2006). Learning logs can also be used to organize science information and to solve problems. After these are demonstrated, modeled, and practiced they can easily facilitate class discussion. Students divide the log into two columns: one for notes and the other for further questions, suggestions, and connections. Teachers can use these logs to monitor student learning and respond to student questions (Steenson, 2006).
The Thayer Model is another way to aid students’ problem solving skills in science class. The Thayer Model is composed of four stages: identify the problem, identify conditions in which a solution can be found, create solutions for the problem, and finally look at the problem again before repeating the cycle. Each time the cycle is completed students move closer to the best solution to a problem. This model can be used individually or in groups (Fay, 2006).
During the first stage, identify the problem, students are presented with a scenario and asked to identify the problem. The second stage, identify conditions in which a solution can be found, includes investigating safety concerns when conducting an experiment. Students must make sure that all processes involved are safe and legal. The third stage, create solutions for the problem, involves brainstorming of multiple solutions. The fourth stage, look at the problem again, involves asking whether or not the problem can be solved. Then if the problem cannot be solved by proposed means, it may be possible to repeat the cycle. This approach encourages students to investigate real-life problems, apply real world solutions, and actively engage in science investigation (Fay, 2006).
Reflection
Science involves many steps of investigation. Students have trouble realizing that making mistakes or not coming to a correct conclusion during science is normal. Students need to begin investigating science activities and solving different problems in early elementary school. The studies I researched focused upon hands-on activities and group work when problem solving. Students cannot learn proper science skills by listening to a teacher lecture every day and only look at textbook examples.
I would like to try having students write into a science journal this year. This would be one way I could monitor each student’s understanding of key concepts. Usually I have students reflect upon their learning at the end of each science activity, but using a journal is a way to keep all of the information together. We can refer back to it when needed.
In my classroom I refer to the scientific method for every experiment we complete. It is routinely modeled and practiced so students have a better understanding of how to investigate problems. Science is a tested area in the fourth grade. I feel a great deal of pressure during the school year to make sure my students are making adequate progress. One problem I face is that fourth grade is the first year that students study science daily. They come to me in the fourth grade and are overwhelmed by the material we cover in a matter of only a few months. I have brought this to the attention to my school principal. We are in the process of mapping our school curriculum and soon all students will study science daily.
These sites have helpful science activities or games.
Science Files - full of handouts to use during science investigations
Engineering
Survivor Games
I would like to try having students write into a science journal this year. This would be one way I could monitor each student’s understanding of key concepts. Usually I have students reflect upon their learning at the end of each science activity, but using a journal is a way to keep all of the information together. We can refer back to it when needed.
In my classroom I refer to the scientific method for every experiment we complete. It is routinely modeled and practiced so students have a better understanding of how to investigate problems. Science is a tested area in the fourth grade. I feel a great deal of pressure during the school year to make sure my students are making adequate progress. One problem I face is that fourth grade is the first year that students study science daily. They come to me in the fourth grade and are overwhelmed by the material we cover in a matter of only a few months. I have brought this to the attention to my school principal. We are in the process of mapping our school curriculum and soon all students will study science daily.
These sites have helpful science activities or games.
Science Files - full of handouts to use during science investigations
Engineering
Survivor Games
Resources
Coleman, E. (1998). Using explanatory knowledge during collaborative problem solving in science. The Journal of the Learning Services, 7(3&4), 387-427.
Fay, G. (2006, Nov). Using a cycle to find solutions. The Science Teacher, 73(8), 44-47.
Jablon, P. (2006, Apr/May). Writing through inquiry. Science Scope, 29(7), 18-20.
Minnick, C., & Alvermann, D. (Eds.). (1991). Science Learning Processes and Applications. Delaware: International Reading Association.
Steenson, C. (2006, Apr/May). Learning logs in the science classroom: The literacy advantage. Science Scope, 29(7), 35-36.
Fay, G. (2006, Nov). Using a cycle to find solutions. The Science Teacher, 73(8), 44-47.
Jablon, P. (2006, Apr/May). Writing through inquiry. Science Scope, 29(7), 18-20.
Minnick, C., & Alvermann, D. (Eds.). (1991). Science Learning Processes and Applications. Delaware: International Reading Association.
Steenson, C. (2006, Apr/May). Learning logs in the science classroom: The literacy advantage. Science Scope, 29(7), 35-36.
Monday, June 4, 2007
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